Professional Development PD Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Professional Development PD Plan - Assignment Example The researcher will begin with the statement that he chose the career of a project manager where his professional development plan proved out to be very helpful. The role of the project manager is different from a functional manager. It is not effective only to apply best practices, skills, and knowledge to project management. Rather, project manager requires having certain managerial and interpersonal abilities to pursue a project successfully. Having a positive attitude towards others and mutual respect for each other are essential features of professionalism. Being project manager, being professional is very important. The author is given a specified time and amount to spend on a project. At a time, there are a number of projects to be dealt with. Professionalism requires careful handling and management of all the projects taking care of the cost and time. The researcher has to make a list of all the tasks at hand. Make sure that every project is going on schedule. When he has to procure resources or delegate responsibly, he does it in an authoritative and professional way keeping my emotional self away from the self at a job. In meetings, the author has to reach before time and if in some cases he has to reach late, he informs the attendants beforehand to avoid inconvenience. The author believes the sense of responsibility and timeliness of project manager is very important because all the people working under me will copy me and become irresponsible if the boss is irresponsible.... I had to work for longer than working hours, keep track of all the activities of workers and I had to be patient in handling them. Sometimes the work needed to be done from scratch again; it required my lot of stamina and patience. Being a successful project manager not only requires the depth of skills of project management, but also managerial capabilities and people management skills. I had to assign different projects to different workers; I had to keep this thing in mind that which worker is good at what? I did not assign projects randomly, rather I had to keep this thing in mind that efficiency can be maximized in a team if members’ strengths and weaknesses are complemented by each other. If a worker is good at recordkeeping, I will assign the transactional work to him rather than giving the actual construction work and ending up with a faulty structure. Working professionally requires to be good at communication skills, to manage time effectively and to take notes of th e critical points. Part 2 My PD plan was very useful in my self-analysis and I got a chance to explore my strengths and weaknesses. The weaknesses identified through PD plans were very critical and needed to be improved to become successful project manager. I tried my best to improve my skills and be a responsible project manager by utilizing my potential and capitalizing on my strengths. It was not an easy task I had to work really hard for improvement. As a result of my PD plan, I found out that my communication skills were not effective. I needed to increase my listening capability and make myself able to convince others by explaining my ideas. It was my week area which I got to know as a result of my

Separation Strategies for Isoprenoids from Aqueous Solutions Term Paper

Separation Strategies for Isoprenoids from Aqueous Solutions - Term Paper Example The simplicity, cost and energy efficiencies as well as the separation capability of solvent extraction, make it the best among these techniques. Introduction Found in all classes of living organisms, isoprenoids are the largest and a diverse group of biomolecules. Also known as terpenoid, isoprenoids are derived from five-carbon isoprene units (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) assembled and modified in thousands of ways (Encyclop?dia Britannica). In isoprenoids, two to thousands of the isoprene units, through one or neither of its double bonds, are linked into larger molecules to form linear or ring structures. As biomolecules, isoprenoids play a wide variety of roles in plant and animal physiological processes and as intermediates in the biological synthesis of other important biomolecules. The flavors, fragrances of essential oils and other plant-derived substances are due to these molecules. Geraniol, an isoprenoid, is a contributor to the fragrance of rose perfume. These molecules are al so extracted from plants or chemically synthesized to be used as pharmaceuticals (e.g. taxol, bisabolol, lycopene, artemisinin), animal feed supplements and food colorants (various carotenoids) For instance, lycopene is the red pigment in tomatoes while carotene, an isoprenoid and precursor of vitamin A, is responsible for the pigment in carrots. Given the biological importance and applications of these molecules, numerous chemical techniques have been developed for their isolation from their natural sources, which inevitably contains some amount of water. Conventional separation techniques such as distillation, fractional distillation, stream distillation, crystallization, solvent extraction, enfleurage, and chromatography are used. The chemical and physical properties of the compound as well as its abundance and distribution in nature, influenced the choice of technique. For instance, while volatile and plentiful isoprenoids such as turpentine are isolated by distillation of oleor esins, extremely rare compounds such as insect’s hormones are separated from the substrate by chromatography. Currently, fundamental research has been directed towards extraction of these molecules from their natural source by bioaccumulation in microorganism, from which these isoprenoids can be extracted (Clark, Maury and Asadollahi 29). This article seeks to discuss the various conventional and emerging separation techniques used for the separation of isoprenoids from aqueous substrate. This discussion will include overview of the underlying principle involved in the process, design considerations with respect to the technique, fundamental challenges associated with the technique and suggestion of the best technique with respect to performance, safety, cost, and energy efficiency. In addition, specific applications of the best technique will be given. Conventional separation techniques for the isolation of isoprenoids Conventional technologies employed include, simple disti llation, fractional distillation, stream distillation, vacuum distillation, solvent extraction, crystallization, and chromatographic techniques. Simple distillation Distillation involves the conversion of a liquid into vapor and the subsequent condensation of the vapor to back to liquid form. Distillation, as performed in the industry or laboratory is based differences in their volatilities (boiling point) of the mixture. Thus distillation is a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.

Search for Identity through Body Modification

Search for Identity through Body Modification Judging from Appearances Body modification of one sort or another has always been practiced new technologies have opened up the possibility for radical change. This has meant that we can now change fundamental aspects of our bodies most obviously our biological sex, but also racial characteristics, signs of ageing and apparent physical imperfections. Basically will be looking at what it means to want to radically alter the body to believe indeed that we have the wrong body Case Study: Nip Tuck Throughout the dissertation will be exploring the meanings acquired by the body in modern, western societies. In doing so the dissertation will examine the ways in which bodies are shaped, acted upon, represented and experienced. Therefore explore various ways in which the body has been seen as an object (the body we have), as a subject (the body we are) and as project (the body that we become) and will explore how these processes are intimately linked to regimes of power and knowledge. For example, recent years have seen the increased prominence and significance of various body projects health and fitness, dieting, cosmetic surgery and body modification- alongside a number of contemporary problems associated with the body new reproductive technologies, genetic engineering, cybernetics, etc. As these examples show, the body in contemporary culture has become a malleable object crucial for the articulation of identities of race ,gender, and sub cultural affiliation. This dissertation will critically examine some of these contemporary trends whilst simultaneously focusing on their social and historical contexts in order to give us a broader understanding of their meanings and implications. I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000years ago. Archaeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colourful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ethan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects means well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark. â€Å"The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warrior soften pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favour, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-,nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exercise often used together are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit and thin future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia â€Å"itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become an/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin† anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food binging followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Brood sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Raceland Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide abroad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; heist very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies(Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the bodying and of itself or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwisted cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colours, hemlines, cut, accessories but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost)always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwisted 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwisted, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression.(Entwisted 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwisted about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification in particular, cosmetic surgery(Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Verging posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Verging 2000, 1). Entwisted explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwisted explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwisted 2000,138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Verging reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Verging 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.†(Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse nobody modification. Entwisted sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order â€Å"she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favas in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes(1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability taco-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behaviour, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favas, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favas sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favas, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of ourselves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic interventions well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness â€Å"as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In† â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages o Search for Identity through Body Modification Search for Identity through Body Modification Title: â€Å"Judging from Appearances: The Search for Identity through Body Modification† I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000 years ago. Archeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colorful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ehsan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects men as well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark.† The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warriors often pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favor, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-, nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exercise—often used together—are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit—and thin—future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia† itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become and/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†Ã¢â‚¬â€anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food—binging—followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Bordo sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise—for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide a broad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification—such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise—are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; he is very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once a seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies (Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the body in and of itself—or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwistle cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colors, hemlines, cut, accessories—but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost) always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwistle 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwistle, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression. (Entwistle 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwistle about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification—in particular, cosmetic surgery (Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems a much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in a footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, a continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Vergine posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example a loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Vergine 2000, 1). Entwistle explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwistle explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwistle 2000, 138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Vergine reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Vergine 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling 1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.† (Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse on body modification. Entwistle sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order† she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favazza in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes (1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability to co-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behavior, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favazza, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favazza sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favazza, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of our selves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic intervention as well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness† as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is a utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of a syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical† (1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In† â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages of each constructed category are subject to change as society changes. The ideal is to be to move from the negative category to the positive category; the â€Å"catch† is that categories are subject to frequent change. Gilman and other researchers refer to â€Å"the discourse of ‘passing.’† This discourse came into existence during the racially charged nineteenth century, and is, according to Gilman, â€Å"the very wellspring of aesthetic surgery.† Citing the research of sociologist Max Weber, Gilman discusses the concept of validity and acceptance, which are only gained when one is recognized and accepted by the prevailing social group: â€Å"validity through group consensus.† In this light, Gilman posits, we can see â€Å"passing† as a type of â€Å"silent validation† (Gilman 1999, 26). Race and Feature In Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing, Clinton Sanders writes that â€Å"in western societies body sculpting to attain beauty or to avoid identification with disvalued groups is a common practice† (Sanders 1989, 7). He then goes on to describe the many ways in which people try to merge into the desired social group. Kinky hair is chemically straightened, while â€Å"ethnic† noses are permanently reshaped through plastic surgery. Less invasive procedures are dietary changes and exercise routines, which will reduce or increase body measurements in

Racial Targeting and Profiling in the United States Essay -- Race Raci

Racial Targeting and Profiling in the United States The practice of targeting individuals for police investigation based on their race alone in the last few years has been an increasingly prominent issue in American society. Numerous magazines, newspapers, and journals have explored the issue of race-motivated police actions. Recently, the ABA Journal did a study of New Jersey and Pennsylvania traffic stops from 1998 to 2001, concluding that black drivers were more likely to be pulled over and arrested than whites. The study also delves into the legal ramifications of the 1996 United States Supreme Court ruling in the Whren v. United States case, which held that police officers subjective motivation for stopping a motorist on the highway was irrelevant as long as a probable cause was present - such as a traffic violation existed for making the stop. The Whren court decision validated the pretext stop, which occurs when police officers ostensibly stop motorists for traffic violations but are in fact motivated by the desire to obtain ev idence of other crimes. Police officers, however, argue that racial profiling is common sense and is sensible, statistically based tool that enables them to focus their energies efficiently for providing protection against crime to law a-biding citizen. In Taylor and Whitney, a study investigating the existence of an empirical basis for racial profiling and crime, they concluded that society must acknowledge the statistics behind crime rates in order to understand the concept of racial profiling; such information is available in annual crime reports. Statistics are facts and numbers which cannot be disputed and provide the experiential basis for racial profiling. The FBI Bulletin also addressed the necessity to consider statistics in addressing the issue of racial profiling. However, unlike Taylor and Whitney who argue for the use of statistics to support racial profiling, the FBI Bulletin promotes the usage of statistics in order to reduce and hopefully eliminate racial profiling. The FBI Bulletin states that if agencies were mandated to keep consistent statistical reports on the attributes and nature of their traffic stops, then racial profiling will not be as rampant. A written record of all traffic stops would do so by attributi ng individual responsibility to the police officers involved in such violations. The ... ...they were not officers would the punishment have been more severe, or if there were white officers would the punishment also have been more drastic. If the suspects in both instances had been suburban white males would the officer?fs reactions been so dramatic. Even former President Clinton recognized racial profiling within our police departments. ?gPresident Clinton called racial profiling by police, a morally indefensible deeply corrosive practice?h. (Clinton Associated Press) He also said that, ?gpeople of color continue to have less confidence and less trust, and believe they are targeted for action?h. (Clinton Associated Press) Clinton recounted that he once asked a group of black journalists if the police had ever stopped them and they all raised their hands. Racial profiling is a problem that needs to be addressed by the government and the people of America. The subject of racial profiling is not only a problem; it is an age-old disease. This disease that has plagued America for a long time, and until we decide to grow up and get past stereotypical and bias views of other races and ethnic backgrounds, this problem will continue to exist with possible fatal results.

American Civil War Essay

Introduction: In our communities today, African Americans have moved away from the theory of ensuring all are able and educated to take care of self. What happened along the way? African American slaves were free of mind but bodies were enslaved. Now that our bodies are free but it seems our minds are enslaved. Mary McLeod Bethune, born to former slaves in 1875, is known for her contributions in black communities. Bethune committed her life to educating African American on the right to freedom and education. She believed through education African Americans could determine their own destiny in an racially equal society. The strength and power she exhibited in the African American community ensured no one would be left behind without a chance in life. Civil right leaders devoted their lives for equality. A number of issues which plague African Americans have their roots dating back to slavery and the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era and are becoming more noticeable in our communities today. There is significant poverty and crime due to lack of education. Families are being destroyed because we have been oppressed by the Jim Crow laws . In many of the southern states during slavery and after the Civil War, slaves was discouraged by their former masters from becoming educated. Mainly because education was opposite with the institution of slavery and would eventually lead to failure . From the perspective of the slave masters, if African Americans were given access to education, they could possibly start thinking and acting on their own, and an uprising was foreseeable. Advocates of slavery in the state of Maryland would be required to accept the reality that slaves or freedmen were in fact not incapable or inferior in absorbing education. The slaves desired the exact same freedoms as whites but, the whites were unwilling to accept the facts . In some states such as Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, for example, Blacks were able to educate themselves. If whites were caught teaching African Americans how to read and write, they were subject to fines and possibly imprisoned. If slaves were caught, the punishment was far more harsh. Annotated Bibliography. Primary Sources: Feagin, Joe R. and Sikes, Melvin P. – â€Å"Living with Racism: The Black Middle-Class Experience†, Acon Press, 1994 The book provides a thorough examination of common stereotyping of prejudice and discrimination. The author describes in detail the minor acts in which African American are subjected. The book includes a number of social issues such as bitterness and despair in the souls of African Americans. Branch, Taylor – â€Å"Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63†, Touchstone Book, 1989 The author provides a thorough examination of America during the time of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Era. The book reveals a portrait of Dr. King as he was haunted by blackmail, factionalism, and hatred. The book discusses the nonviolent movement as a dramatic force in history. The book provides relevant information relating to my research on racial issues within the African American community. West, Cornel – â€Å"Race Matters†, Vintage 1994 Cornel West’s book provides a thorough examination of new Black conservatism and the strained relations in the Black community. The author addresses a range of issues from the crisis in Black leadership and myths surrounding affirmative action. The book includes a passion grounded in the tradition of the African American church. Ward, Jerry W, Jr, and Graham, Maryemma – â€Å"The Cambridge History of African American Literature† Cambridge University Press 2011 The book provides you with four hundred years of black writing and comprehensive overview of the literary traditions, oral and print, of African-descended peoples in the United States. The contributors, drawn from the United States and beyond, emphasize the dual nature of each text discussed as a work of art created by an individual and as a response to unfolding events in American cultural, political, and social history. Washington, Booker T – â€Å"1856-1915 Up from Slavery†, Doubleday, c1901 Booker T. Washington’s book provides a thorough examination of the events in a remarkable life that began in bondage. The author discusses the relevant issues that impacted the Black community. Mr. Washington demonstrates in his book how he came up from slavery and educated the Black community. Internet: http://mh. sandglass. com/history-african-american-education-montgomery-county-0 Title: History of African-American Education in Montgomery County Description: For nearly a century, schools for black students in Montgomery County (and indeed most of the country) were denied the benefits provided to their entirely separate, but supposedly â€Å"equal,† white counterparts. http://www. loc. gov/search/? q=education+in+maryland+1865 Title: By the House of Delegates, February 14, 1865. Description: Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to the General Assembly of Maryland, together with a bill entitled â€Å"A Uniform System of Public Instruction for the State of Maryland. † Emancipation Proclamation/ End of the Civil War: President Lincoln, on January 1, 1863, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The Proclamation, DID NOT immediately abolish slavery it only applied to areas outside Union Control. However, it made emancipation an irrevocable war aim, profoundly changing the character of the Civil War. The lives of African American slaves changed forever. The end of the Civil War and the abolition of slavery raised complicated issues and dilemmas for African American and white Americans. In 1865, the Civil War ended and slaves were now free. Many slaves waited the day of being free. Nearly 4 million slaves were freed. For many of the slaves, the future was uncertain. However, for the slaves, it meant families would remain together, and their women would no longer be subject to rape and used as â€Å"bed warmers†. The newly freed slaves were given opportunities to develop their own communities. Many of the slaves were quick to inform the white slave master they were free. Freed slaves were faced with poverty, homelessness and a severe lack of education. Reconstruction: In 1865 Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, to assist with the transition of freedmen for newly freed slaves. The bureau was given massive responsibilities in helping freedmen by providing property, education, and how to negotiate on labor contracts with white planters. Also the Bureau aid in settling criminal disputes involving blacks and whites. Newly freed slaves did not trust the Bureau slavery remain present in the freedmen minds. The former slaves suffered a tremendous amount of injustices at the hands of whites. The bureau was not designed to be a permanent institution but the goal was to encourage the newly freed slave to become self-reliant as soon as possible. The freedman’s Bureau was put in place for one year. Many white Southerners desire was to eliminate former slave’s new found freedom. The renowned African American scholar and activist W. E. B Du Bois assisted in the path of reconstruction. W. E. B. DuBois begins his social analysis of the black conditions in Philadelphia. Published in 1899, The Philadelphia He was also considered the most powerful black educator of the 19th and 20th centuries in so far as he controlled the flow of funds to black schools and colleges. Up from slavery, born a slave on a small farm in the Virginia backcountry, he worked in the salt furnaces and coal mines of West Virginia as a child. e He was determined to get an education he would travel hundreds of miles under great stress until he arrived At Hampton Institute. The 15th Amendment is passed permitting black men the right to vote. Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina is the first black to be seated in the House. In all, twenty-two blacks are elected to Congress during Reconstruction . There were seven lawyers, three ministers, one banker, one publisher, two school teachers, and three college presidents. Hampton Normal Agricultural Institute is founded by Samuel Chapman Armstrong and chartered as one of the first colleges for blacks. It is also a pioneer in educating American Indians. Booker T. Washington is among its early graduates. Pennsylvania, the home of the oldest and largest northern free black community. Dr. Carter G. Woodson’s innate brilliance and capacity for critical thought allowed him to envision the impossible as possible. He was one of the first African American to receive a doctorate in the United States, and the second to be awarded a doctorate in history from Harvard University; he almost single-handedly pulled African American history from the margins of obscurity. Dr. Woodson was particularly concerned with social and economic history focusing his lens on the fundamental virtue of African Americans, both as individuals and as an ethnic group. Building on traditions informed by the scholarship of black historians such as William Bell Brown and George Washington Williams, he inspired an entire generation of African American cultural historians including noted Pan-Africans Rayford W. Logan, and political and social activist Luther Porter Jackson, among others. His extensive body of work and astute analysis of Negro history and its African origins prompted the intellectual life represented in the Harlem Renaissance, ushered in the era of black studies and also influenced the civil rights, black power and black arts movements. Sixty years after his death on April 3, 1950, his legacy as the Father of Black History still lives on. Education Two of the world’s greatest black’s leaders within the African American community. W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington had very distinctive views on education in the African American community. They both disagreed on strategies that largely affected the future of African Americans social and economic development. The philosophies of Du Bois and Washington on how to overcome racial injustice. Booker T. Washington was an educator and influential black leader. Washington spoke from philosophy point of view on self-help, racial and accommodations. He suggested that African Americans should accept racial discrimination for now. But, instead focus on elevating via hard work. Washington believed in education he urged blacks to accept discrimination for the time being and concentrate on elevating themselves through hard work, training and material prosperity. He believed the former African Americans slaves should focus their time in learning skills in farming and industrial. It would gain the respects of whites and that would lead in to becoming accepted as American citizens. W. E. B. Du Bois, is considered a scholar and political thinker. He was against Washington’s strategy to accept racial discrimination that would serve only to preserve white oppression. Du Bois was an advocate for political action and for the civil rights of former African American Slaves. He helped found the NAACP. He believed that social change can be accomplished by developing the small group of educated blacks he called the Talented Tenth. Du Bois has a more realist view in reference to education. Lack of education puts you at disadvantage in competing with whites for higher paying jobs. Ignoring racial discrimination will cause the people to become oppress. If you educated the people they can become more self-reliant from economic prospective. Education in Maryland: In Maryland 1865 â€Å"one high school per county†, the law was passed to opened the door for African-American children to receive a free education. There were some guides that first must be followed taxes collected from African American in the state of Maryland were sufficient to cover the expenses of building schools. The Emancipation Proclamation stated that African Americans were freed in 1863, segregation became the standard. African American teachers were not allowed teach in the state of Maryland without a three year certificate that was issued by the state superintendent, or by the president of the county board. The requirements for Maryland teachers in the 1860s-Caucasian or African-American-were the same. The teachers in Maryland were required to be single; to attend to the students from 9 -4 p. m. , Maryland counties were under no obligation to educated or supply public intuition for African American students. Many of the African American students were taught in very small quarters at home the teachings were informal. However a state law was passed in 1872 to create separate education of white and black students. The school board in Montgomery County refused to maintain the construction and maintenance of black schools. The county promised new schools will be built. MC refused to repairs previous burned and damaged schools from riots’ and cross burnings, Discard books were given to the black schools they never received new books. Most of the time the books were out dated and discarded by whites. The African American teaches salaries were withheld and classes halted with no formal notice. The African American school year was shorter compared to the white’s schools. However, African American teachers were more qualified than their white peers. The pay of African American teacher was much lower. In spite of the white schools, and although many African American teachers were better qualified than their white peers, their official wage scale was much lower. Nevertheless, teachers and parents were devoted to providing the finest education they could, despite these adverse circumstances. In spite of such laws, in African American established a colored school for students and employed black teachers. In a few cases, slave masters taught their slaves or the children of slave masters. However, for the large majority of enslaved African Americans, there were really no formal recognized educational institutions. Therefore, African Americans depended on private instruction to educate themselves. Bowie State University is the oldest historically African American University. It was founded in 1865, in Baltimore, Maryland. It was considered an African American institution of higher education in the State of Maryland for people of color primarily for teachers. Some of the classes were held in Baptist churches. The freedmen’s Bureau the school relocated to a building purchased from the Society of Friends at Courtland and Saratoga Streets. The institution reorganized solely as a normal school to train black teachers in 1893. Conclusion: Globalization is the process in which the black community in the United States must continue to grow in becoming connected and intergraded into the modern world, by building businesses and generating economic growth. The black community should become more engaged in the cultural and political education of the community and respond together and address any global problems that could possibly affect the growth of the community. The problems which plaque African Americans during slavery are becoming more noticeable in our communities today. There is significant poverty among African Americans and crime due to lack of education. Families are being destroyed because we have been oppressed. Booker T. Washington was considered the most powerful black educator of the 19th and 20th centuries, he forward large some of his funds black schools and colleges. He was determined to educate himself. A segment of the African American people has moved away from the theory of ensuring all are able and educated to take care of self. During slavery the minds of the African American minds were free and bodies enslaved. Now that our bodies are free but our minds are enslaved. The global and social issues are affecting many parts of the African Americans community across the country. Some of the problems are so complex, that most people steer clear of addressing global and social issues. A group of people who were dehumanized and strip of their original identity are in search of equality that will better prepare children of the future. Mary McLeod Bethune, born to former slave’s in1875 after the Civil war, is known for her contributions in the black communities. In the 21st century around the world constant debates are taking place concerning the impact of globalization in education in the African American community. Economy and education it’s amazing that the African American community is roughly defined or mildly represented in education. The actually perspective in developing a larger spectrum, cross disciplinary, and cross-boundaries approach would be necessary to examine educational challenges. The collective behavior of the educational system has influence mass behavior of educational system in the black community. Social issues in the black community may cause declined moving to the next century due to the lack of education. The can and will have a global affect across all minority culture. Black children are being placed in special education. As the country move forward in modern technology and higher education the large number of children of color will be left behind. Some of the children that are placed in the venues called class rooms were they are only taught the basic. They not are being prepared for the future. It’s appalling the social, health, economic and criminal justice are markers that predicts downward sparrow in future proportions in the near future for our community. The collective behavior of the African American communities is not reaching out to address these impending issues. Without positive changes, practical well thought out plans the mobilization; the segment of the African American community will not be able to move forward in the new global information or advanced technological skills. Education must become a priority. We must develop a social culture of literacy and education. The Black community must encourage the children to want to learn and move to higher level of education. The parents must be engaged in the educational process. The affects of slavery completely disrupted the notion of the black family because family members could be sold away from one another at any time. Mothers could be torn away from their infants; husbands could be sold away from their families without notice. Slavery made African Americans into work animals, or beasts of burden, who were expected to work from sun up to sundown without stopping, and who were sometimes actually bred like cattle or horses to make better, stronger slaves. Slavery also made black men, women and children extremely helpless to brutal violence, the means of which we cannot even imagine today: rape, murder, torture, lynching’s, tar and feathering, whipping, etc. Slavery also caused severe emotional and psychological trauma, which resulted in oftentimes in self-hatred because blacks were taught that everything black was bad and everything white was good because the lack of education and dehumanized put the African American community at disadvantaged. Some blacks learned to hate the color of their skin, their physical features, and the texture of their hair because they were told over and over that they were ugly because they weren’t European. Slavery has a negative effect on the Black community in America. When slavery was abolish some slaves was taken back to varies parts of Africa. The slaves that remained in America life was an uphill constant battle fighting for equal opportunities as whites. Slavery kept blacks from being educated in large numbers because it was illegal for slaves to learn to read and write. Slave-owners were afraid that educated slaves would find a way to organize themselves and begin a revolution that would end. The 21 century has created an environment that suppresses many healthy discussions in order to remain politically correct. However, as African Americans, we have a strong heritage of lively debate and facing the hard issues to ensure the welfare of our citizens. Many Blacks feels oppressed and angry. Not surprisingly, most discussions today are taking place within the Black community, although electing our first Black President has broadened the commentary on the issue. Does slavery continue to affect our community today? Slavery ended in 1865, followed by reconstruction, which ended in 1877. Freed slaves, who had spent their lives being told what to do and were conditioned to react rather than initiate thought, were left to their own devices to face â€Å"freedom â€Å"The effect of slavery continues to exert its brutal influence in the untold sufferings of millions of everyday people. In conclusion: Globalization has positive and negative affect on the African American community positive affect moving from slavery to equality and negative many are left behind due to not forming to globalization. In 1865 School Superintend of Maryland wrote excluding African Americans students. 1st. Education ought to be Universal. 2nd. Education ought to be Free, and therefore, 3rd. The property of the whole State is responsible For such education of every child in the State as will prepare him to perform the duties of a man and a citizen, in obedience to the laws of God and the laws of the Commonwealth. In the first Article of the Declaration of Rights, the people of Maryland say, â€Å"That we hold it to be self- evident that all men are created equally free ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, the enjoyment of the proceeds of their own labor and the pursuit of happiness. † If this be our Faith, then our works ought to be mani- fest. Our children must be carefully taught without any distinction of person, the principles by which life may be preserved and made productive of good to its possessors and those whom they may influence.

Difference To The Lives Of Children Education Essay

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child ( UNCRC ) creates the consciousness of the predicaments of kids in poorness, as such, issues refering to kids are given higher precedence during policies-making in international every bit good as national dockets. UNCRC sets the basic criterions for local authoritiess to supply for and to protect the kids in footings of basic demands like wellness, nutrition, instruction and other facets. It was adopted by United Nations in 1989 as a tool to protect the best involvement of the kid and to guarantee that all kids have the right of life, endurance and development. Since 1989, UNCRC has been adopted by all but two states. UNCRC and every kid affairs ( 2006 ) states that all kids have a right to life and authoritiess must guarantee that all kids survive and stay healthy. As states are obliged to do regular studies to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, the province authoritiess do hold moral duties to supply for the kids. State authoritiess are besides farther required to carry through certain demands when using for AIDSs from international bureaus. One of the conditions may be to supply for and to protect kids ( UNICEF, 2005: p.30 ) . In add-on, since the bend of the century, authorities organic structures and international bureaus have focused largely on the rights of kids. Most of the UN millenary development ends is to concentrate on the realisation of the rights of kids, such as to convey kids out of poorness, rights to wellness, instruction and endurance ( UNICEF, 2005: p.8 ) . Further to UNCRC avowal on rights of instruction, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child interpret instruction to get down from birth and is aligned to the right of development of the kid. As such, much significance is given to ECEC in policies development globally. Surveies have shown intercession in early childhood may be important for the development of a kid. Early childhood instruction and attention ( ECEC ) may be referred to high quality attention for immature kids from birth. It includes educating parents to supply and care for kids in the facets of wellness, nutrition, larning and development ( Annan, 2001: p.63 ) . Harmonizing to Siraj- Blatchford ( 2009 ) , it is believed that kids who have entree to early childhood attention and instruction may do better in their hereafter development. Children from hapless background may hold equal opportunity to travel out of the poorness rhythm through early instruction as early intercessions may hold positive benefits in the long tally ( Heckman, 2006b as cited by Siraj-Blatchford & A ; Woodhead, 2009 ) . Harmonizing to Conley ‘s human capital theory, investing in immature kids will convey the greatest return to society in the hereafter. This is concurred in the human development instance as explained in Siraj-Batchford and Woodhead ( 2009 ) which states that intercession in early old ages will forestall loss of development potency in the kids. Governments and international bureaus invest in early childhood attention and instruction on the apprehension that people contribute to the state ‘s wealth. The economic benefits generated from investing in ECEC will churn greater additions in the hereafter as it will take down wellness and societal hazards, like offense rates. In return, it will better kids ‘s development which is translated to occupations accomplishments and higher worker productiveness in future ( Siraj-Blatchford & A ; Woodhead, 2009 ) . Another principle for early intercession in ECEC is the societal justness instance. All people should be given equal opportunities in life. Governments and international bureaus may be committed to guarantee all people have the same rights to instruction. Furthermore, it is through instruction that people learn the cardinal attitudes and values to make good ( Siraj-Blatchford & A ; Woodhead, 2009 ) . State authoritiess and international bureaus have their ain dockets in perpetrating to the UNCRC. However, in order for UNCRC to do a difference to kids, authorities and international bureaus must put precedences on the rights of kids when forcing for economic and societal growing. Early childhood attention and instruction must be of primary precedence as it is the kid ‘s right and non as a consequence of edifice human capital or for social-economic returns. Surveies have shown that the more effectual programmes include all facets such as wellness, nutrition and development every bit good as parental and community engagement. Arango ( 2009 ) concur active engagement from households, communities and all stakeholders are necessary to do ECEC programmes successful. This is in the instance of PROMESA in Columbia, whereby the households and communities are actively involved in the programmes. As such, UNCRC does do a difference if the international bureaus, province authoritiess, communities and households are committed to advance kid ‘s right. It may be disputing to supply quality early childhood attention and instruction to battle poorness. The relevancy of early childhood theoretical accounts, societal and cultural context, co-ordination within households, communities and authorities organic structures play an of import function in developing appropriate intercession programme to assist kids in poorness reach their full potency in mental and societal development ( Siraj-Blatchford & A ; Woodhead, 2009 ) . For illustration, in the instance of a developed state, like USA, one of the aims of ECEC is to enable adult females to hold equal engagement in the work force and to enable kids to larn and socialise ( Penn, 2005 ) . As early intercession to control poorness may non be the chief precedence, ECEC is left to private operators which result in inequalities in quality of programme ( Siraj-Blatchford & A ; Woodhead, 2009 ) . Inequality of quality and entree as private sectors tend to provide to the flush and non put up in poorer parts of the states. For illustration, in USA, ECEC is left to single suppliers so the quality of attention and instruction is variable and there is unjust entree to these services ( Penn, 2005 ) . Individual suppliers are besides more likely to put up ECEC Centres in urban countries and this may be incompatible with the authorities purpose to supply quality instruction for all kids. UNCRC may be an international jurisprudence, nevertheless, it has no legal legal power in the states which have adopted it. Furthermore, the reading of UNCRC may be affected by the cultural values of the states ( Maynard & A ; Thomas, 2009 ) . As such, the quality of early childhood instruction and attention may be affected. As in the instance of Malawi, the ECEC set up in rural countries are community-based with hapless plan and unqualified staff. In add-on the stigma of AIDS maintain some of the kids ostracized and as a consequence did non go to ECEC ( Clark & A ; Tucker, 2010 ) . In the twelvemonth 2000, UN millenary development ends were identified and set to be achieved by 2015. However, these ends which target chiefly the rights of the kid have non been achieved as yet. Childs are still populating in poorness and hapless wellness. Diseases such as HIV, TB and malaria is prevailing. In order for UNCRC to do a difference to kids, province authoritiess and international bureaus must be committed puting kids in first precedence. All determinations in nation-building every bit good as economic growing should be considered with the rights of kids in head.