Essay on Gangs - 1133 Words

When was the last time you were able to turn on the news and not hear about some sort of violent act? Crime is a growing concern amongst most cities, and street gangs are behind a lot of the trouble. Street gangs have plagued the streets for centuries and there is no stopping the urge to commit such hideous crimes. Gangs grow from recruiting young kids but what makes a kid decide to join a crime filled lifestyle. The gang life contains many negative aspects including the most notorious reason for violence, drugs. Getting high seems appealing to many students but with the excitement of getting high comes the responsibility of buying and selling the drugs. The biggest reason for a gang to start would be drugs. Marijuana might seem like a†¦show more content†¦Kids are always looking for the popularity because they need friends and I don’t know anybody who could live through childhood without any friends. There are other kids who feel like they don’t fit in with society so they become rebels. A rebel is a person who resists or defies an authority, as kids there are plenty of authorities in your life. It’s a known fact that young kids don’t like authority because it doesn’t let them live their lives like they want. So what happens when a kid gets really angry at a principle or teacher, kids can retaliate by rebelling against their rules. This can be the simple start of a life of crime because the kids will meet others like they are which will lead them into gang life. There are kids that one might consider a bad crowd, which are the wrong kids to become friends with. These kids are just beginning to start a life of crime, although some won’t grow up to be gang members others will and they will try there hardest to take you with them. It’s also very hard to stay away from these kids because the can be very deceivingly friendly and fun to be around but that’s just a mask to hide the evil underneath. It’s really sad to see some kids that never fit in become recruited by the bad kids because it will only be a matter of time before the kid that never fit in soon becomes the kid that sells drugs. There are many different levels of gangShow MoreRelatedGang Report On Gang Groups840 Words   |  4 Pages2013 National Gang Report, gangs continue to flourish, progress, and develop criminal tradecrafts (p. 3). Based on state, local, and federal law enforcement reporting, the National Gang Intelligence Center (NGIC) calculated that the US gang composition is approximately 88 percent street gang members, 9.5 percent prison gang members, and 2.5 percent outlaw motorcycle gang (OMG) members. 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The largest U.S. gangs are structured similarly to giant corporations that succeed with levels of management teams with the ultimate goal of profit, U.S. gangs are no different as theyRead MoreGangs And Gang Crimes All Together2177 Words   |  9 PagesI have chosen to write my paper on Gangs and Gang crimes all together. I want to explain the history and reasoning of modern gangs and how and why they came about. I also want to give examples of some of the most common gangs known world wide and examples of the crimes they commit. I will also include insight on the reasoning behind the joining of gangs. Lastly, I would like to go into some detail about the criminal investigation of gang crimes. I have chosen this topic because I believe it is oneRead MoreDo Gang Behavior And Gang Affiliation?1845 Words   |  8 Pagesacknowledge and challenge communities to recognize gang behavior and gang aff iliation. This paper will also describe the culture and what it means to be in a gang; key findings of the research; recommendations the community can employ to remedy the need; and discussions and implications for further study. Keywords: African-American, Black men, Hip hop, Rap music, Nigga â€Å"There are approximately 27,900 gangs, with 774,000 members, impacting towns, cities, andRead MoreClassification of Gangs847 Words   |  4 PagesClassification of Gangs Introduction The problem of classifying gangs has interested both sociologists and law enforcement. For the purpose of law enforcement, a gang is generally defined as an organized group among the members of which there is well-designed communication. This paper evaluates classification schemes from current research for gangs. The objective is to discover the issues and problems in creating classifications for gangs including a definition which delineates what constitutes a gang and differentiatesRead MoreGangs and Injunctions1330 Words   |  6 PagesGangs and Injunctions Criminal activities and gangs have mostly always been an on going problem in the United States. Gangs and gang members are frequently involved with a variety of different crimes. The 2008 National Youth Gang Survey reported that there are approximately 774,000 active gang members in the United States (Egley, Howell, Moore, 2010). The 2008 National Youth Gang Survey also states that there are about 27,900 active gangs in the United States (Egley et al., 2010). The active

Humanitys Journey in Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath Essay

Humanitys Journey in Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath As a major literary figure since the 1930s, Steinbeck displays in his writing a characteristic respect for the poor and oppressed. In many of his novels, his characters show signs of a quiet dignity and courage for which Steinbeck has a great admiration. For instance, in The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck describes the unrelenting struggle of the people who depend on the soil for their livelihood. One element helping give this novel an added touch of harmony is Steinbeck’s ability to bind these two ideas into one story: the never ending struggle to survive and primacy of the family. The journey of the Joads serves as a suitable vehicle for the delivery of Steinbecks message and†¦show more content†¦The never say die efforts of Uncle John to stop the rising flood water is one example of Steinbecks unremitting struggle theme (Steinbeck 567). The constant effort of the entire Joad family to find work, although poor, oppressed, and hungry, shows that Steinbeck wants to show their tremendous courage and dignity. In this way, Steinbeck is able to use the journey structure to describe these fine qualities he sees and respects in the poverty-stricken masses of his time. If one reads more deeply into The Grapes of Wrath, the reader may find that the journey of the Joads mirrors the journeys of other Okies and other forced migrations in history. The journey of the Joads has its ups and downs. Migrants are not always received with open arms; they are commonly persecuted and looked upon as subhuman. For them the promised land becomes the land of despair and suffering. While exposing the ordeal of their poverty, Steinbeck also seeks to affirm the sanctity of life and the unifying, clarifying forces inherent in human suffering (Wilson 529). In many ways, the journey of the Africans to America as slaves is similar to the dust bowl migrations. Both are forced from the land that they love by seemingly non-human forces. They were taken to the land of riches where they were poor. The slaves were however taken by force but the Okies were seduced by the lure of work andShow MoreRelatedThe Grapes of Wrath - Journey of the Joads and Humanity Essay777 Words   |  4 Pages The Journey of the Joads and the Journey of Humanity nbsp; In Steinbecks novel, The Grapes of Wrath, he describes the struggle of the small farmer and farmworker. The principal characters define quiet dignity and courage in their struggle to survive and in the caring for their loved ones. Through this novel, Steinbeck displays his respect for all the poor and oppressed of our world. nbsp; The journey of the Joads represents Steinbecks message of respect for the poor and oppressed onRead MoreThe Grapes of Wrath Synthesis Essay891 Words   |  4 Pagestowards each other. It has happened so much so, that some have argued human nature is intrinsically violent and aggressive. This can be seen in chapter 25 of The Grapes of Wrath: the mindless destruction of resources ultimately amounts to nothing productive. In his novel, Steinbeck expresses harsh criticism and disapproval toward humanity’s self-destructive and violent nature. Man’s cruelty to his fellow man, a major theme in the book, is very clearly addressed in chapter 25: â€Å"And men with hosesRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Grapes Of Wrath 1436 Words   |  6 PagesTyler Jordan Ms. Mittleman Honors American Lit. September 14, 2014 â€Å"Humanity’s Wrathful Curtain† In his historical fiction, Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck characterizes the Joad family as one of the many migrating farming families subjected to prejudice and seclusion on their journey to California. Similarly, in T.C. Boyle’s Tortilla Curtain, Cà ¡ndido and Amà ©rica are victims of animosity and discrimination after fleeing their homes in Mexico to seek a better life in Los Angeles. In their stories

Australia Had To Consider Interpretation â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Australia Had To Consider Interpretation? Answer: Introducation In this case the federal court of Australia had to consider the interpretation of the duty of care and diligence which the directors owe toward their companies under the provisions of section 180(1) of the Corporation Act 2001 (Cth) (CA). The judges in this case had to determine whether two directors who were also the only shareholders of the company can be held liable for providing detrimental financial advice to the clients of the company in relation to section 180(1) of the CA. In this case Storm Financial Limited (Storm) were the defendants and the Australian Securities and Investment Commission were the plaintiff. Storm held an Australian financial services license and indulged in providing financial services to clients on the basis of a model which had been developed by one of its directors. The model provided for borrowing of the clients against the equity they had in their homes, so that they could obtain a margin loan through the use of such funds in order to make an investm ent in index funds along with the establishment of a cash reserve[1]. The court had to determine whether such actions indulged into by the directors accounted to the breach of duty under Section 180(1) of the CA[2]. Applicable law The major law which was applicable in relation to this case is Section 180(1) of the CA. According to the section a director or any other officer of the company has to discharge their duties and use their powers through the application of appropriate level of care and diligence which would have been implemented by a reasonable person if they were in the shoes of the directors or officers of the company. The section further reads that for the contravention of this section civil penalties prescribed by section 1317E of the CA are applicable[3]. Submissions made by the parties The directors of Storm made a submission before the court that the model used by the company was viable and the contraventions made by the company could not be foreseen by a reasonable person. The various submission made by them on this issue consisted that the company that many professionals which included lawyers and financial advisers had been advised by the company. It was also submitted by the company that they had been subjected to review by ASIC, Compliance professionals along with its non executive directors. Reliance was also made b y the directors to the fact that during the ten years of its history the financial index off the company had never fallen. It was also submitted by them that the only real reason for the failure of the model was the Black Swan event namely GFC. However it was not alleged by the ASIC that there was a flaw in the model used by the company if it could have been considered as aggressive. The submission made by the ASIC related to contravention relate d to the model only to the extent it included a particular class of people. The ASIC submitted that the duty under 180(1) was breached by storm. It was provided by the ASIC that the duties had been breached by the directors when the company was solvent, the two directors were the only shareholders and directors of the company and there was no dispute in relation to the management. Other issues which were adjudged by the court in relation to this case are whether an actual breach on the part of the directors was needed to contravene the provisions of section 180. The claim made by ASIC was based on the fact that the directors had actually breached the provisions of the CA as a stepping stone towards section 1801(1). The court expressed that there was serious doubt on the submission that an actual breach was mandatory to constitute the contravention of section 180(1) however the proceedings of the courts have been done on this basis. Thus the submission of the ASIC had been rejected by the court which stated that the actual breach by directors was necessary to contravene section 180(1) of the CA. It was submitted by the directors of storm that the duties existing under section 180(1) were solely owed to the company. To the contrary it was submitted by the ASIC that the a norm of conduct is prescribed by the s180(1) which is different from the benefit of the corporation so the duty extends to the world at large. The submissions of the directors had been accepted by the court, however it noted that the interest of the corporation must not be interpreted in a narrow manner and thus must not be restricted to the interest of the shareholders alone and in addition not only financial losses but reputational damages are also considered as losses for the corporation. It was in addition submitted by the director that a director who is the only owner of the corporation is not liable to the contravention of section 180(1) of the CA. the basis of the submission was that the shareholders and the directors have the sole right to determine the risk the corporation should take in order to make profits. The directors submitted that sole directs cannot breach section 180(1) as it is implied that the ratification of the act can be done by the directors where they are the only shareholders. The submission of the directors in relation to this point had been rejected by the court. The court in relation to the submission ruled that such submission cannot be supported as per the wordings and context of s180 (1) of the CA, and thus could not be authorized. Acts which are not consistence with the CA may be authorized by the shareholders but they have no power to ratify them. Decision of the court: It was found by the court that directors of storm had contravened the duty owed by them under section 180(1) of the CA. The assertion of the court was based on the fact that a reasonable director in the same circumstances would have been aware that the sections of the CA would be contravened in the given situation and would bring detrimental consequences for the company. The test as provided by section 180 (1) of CA was applied by the court to determine whether reasonable care had been exercised by the directors in relation to the discharge of their duties. it was provided by the court that in order to properly implement the test all circumstances related to the cases have to be taken into consideration which included the foresee ability of the risk of harm with respect to the interest of the company, the degree of the harm the benefits arising out of the directors conduct and the burden imposed on the company to mitigate the foreseeable harm. It was found by the court that the Corporation Act had been breached by the directors of storm as they provided financial services in accordance to the model in context to clients of a vulnerable category which had been highlighted by the ASIC and this can be said because: A director who would have acted reasonably in the same circumstances which the company was in, along with considering the duties of the existing directors of storm would have had the knowledge that it is very likely that the sections of the CA would be breached if he or she used his or her powers to permit or cause the model provided by storm to be made applicable on the clients who were pleaded in class by the ASIC and specifically those investors who neared retirement or retired with limited assets and income. It was provided by the court that the breach which the company was alleged with was not only foreseeable but any reasonable director in the place of the existing directors would have considered them as most likely. It was further analyzed by the court that the conduct which the directors indulged in was a singular breach of each of their duties and not many breaches consistent with the count of investors who made up the classes of vulnerable investors. It was further conceded by the ASIC that only one breach had been made by both the directors. It was considered by the court that although the directors acted honestly, and had a genuine views that genuinely held the view that capital loss could never occur with index fund investment in the Storm model, it would not be possible for them to evade the liability under section 1317s of the CA as they had significant roles to play in the company along with seriousness of contraventions of the storms. The issue of liability had only been dealt with so far by the judges in relation to this case and further proceedings would be held in order to determine the liabilities of the directors. The case signified that the directors of the company which is solvent and where they are only shareholders are liable to breach the duty of care and diligence if their actions contravene the provisions of CA. It is further provided by section 136(3) that a special resolution would not have any effect if the constitution of the company has a further requirement which has to be satisfied in order to modify or repeal the term. In addition section 136(3) states that the further requirement as described in 136(3) can also be modified but only if the requirement is complied with[5]. Section 232 to 234 of the CA deal with operative conduct of affairs directors of the company. As provided by section 232 the court has authority to provide any order with respect to Section 233 in case the activities in relation to the company or a proposed or actual actor omission or a proposed or actual resolution by the company members is either detrimental to the benefits of the members of the company as a whole or unfairly prejudicial oppressive or discriminatory with respect to a member or members within any capacity[6]. What is actually an affair of a body corporate is defined in section 53 of the CA. The section can be summarized by stating that any actions taken in relation to the company can be deemed as affair of the company[7]. Section 233 of the CA states that any order can be made by the court in relation to circumstances provided under section 232 which may include the winding of a company, modification for repairing the existing constitution of the company, restraining and director from engaging a specified act, on providing orders requiring a person to do a specified act[8]. As provided by section 234 of the CA any member of the company holding in shares is eligible to obtain order under section 233 even if such member in certain circumstances have ceased to be the member of the company[9]. Application: The constitution of Koala through its close 9k provides that Kenny, Keith, Khalid and Kylie has to be the directors of the company at all times. A provision of the Constitution of a company can only be changed through the passing of the special resolution. A special resolution is passed by two third majority of the total members. In this particular case where there are four directors the directors other than Kanye have the power to pass a special resolution. In addition, according to the provisions of section 136(3)of the CA even a special resolution is not valid if an existing provision of the Constitution is not complied with. Therefore as the constitution of Kuala provides that all for directors have to be the directors of the company all the time. The other the directors do not have the power to remove Kanye from her position as Clause 9k clearly states that the four must be the directors of Koala all the time. In addition the actions which the directors are indulging in to raise the capital of the company and not Kanye the opportunity to be a part of such raise can be seen as oppressive action on the part of the other three directors with respect Kanye. This action is set to provide the other three directors an increased shares in the company which would lead to proving them increased control over the affairs of the company. They also had the duty to consult Kanye while such decision was being made as all executive directors of a corporation has the right to be consulted. Another operation action which has been identified in this scenario is that the other three directors have suspended providing dividend on shares and increased their salaries. This action taken by the directors can bring significant detriment to the position of Kanye as a shareholder of the company as not only would Kanye be able to receive dividends with respect to the profit made by the company, the best interest of the company would also not be ensured as the other three would charge a high remuneration. Conclusion Thus, in the given circumstances Kanye has the right to bring and action against the other three directors for a legal amendment of the constitution in relation to section 136(3), along with action for oppressive conduct against members under section 233 of the CA A director is a person who is entrusted to take care of the functions of a corporation. They are impossible several rights and responsibilities in Australia through the Corporation Act. In relation to this particular scenario three specific duties of directors as provided to Section 181 to 183 of the CA are discussed in this section along with a few case law examples setting out actions of directorsin relation to a company. Section 181 of the CA clearly sets out that the actions of the directors towards the Corporation must be in good faith and to ensure best interest of the corporation. The duty of best interest is interpreted by the court in broad aspect. The directors must always be honest towards organization they are managing and their actions should always be streamlined towards ensuring the best possible result for the company[10]. Section 182 of the CA expressly sets out that no director of the company has right to use the position they are in in such a way so as to bring detriment to the existing company. Is there is any conflict of interest it is the duty of the directors to always inform the other directors about such interest and to give priority to the benefits of the company over personal benefits. The duty not to use the position in an in proper way can be contravened by the directors even if they did not have the intention to do so[11]. As provided by section 183 of the CA any information which the directors of the company can access and relation to that company should not be used by them to give any personal benefit at the cost of the company[12]. As provided by the case of ASIC v Vizard[13] the director who used the confidential information obtained from the organization managed by him Contravened section 183, 182 and 181 of the CA. This was because the information was used improperly to gain personal benefits at the cost of the company. In the case of Cassegrain v Gerard Cassegrain Co Pty Ltd[14]it was found by the Court that the directors of the company violated the duty to act in its best interest and not to use position information in in in proper way by selling the shares of the company at a low cost to their wife and daughter respectively. It has been provided by the scenario that two out of four directors of Koala namely Keith and Kylie have taken the initiative to form a new company named Koala 2. The new company is dealing with one of the same products which is dealt by Koala. They decided to sell souvenirs which was also sold by Koala into the foreign markets by purchasing it from the local and making massive profits. As the directors of Koala it was the duty of Keith and Kylie to acting the best interest of Koala. In the circumstances the best interest of Koala would have been insured is both the directors would have taken the initiatives to sell the souvenirs in the foreign market under the name of Koala. However such actions were not taken by them and therefore the duty to act in the best interest of the company provided to Section 181 of the CA was violated by them. In addition they also used the position and information they gained access to as the directors of Koala. If they would not have been the directors of Koala they would not have had the information about selling such souvenirs which was related to the business of Koala into the foreign markets. Thus it can be provided that Keith and Kylie have violated section 182 and 183 of the CA by making improper use of position and information of the company As discussSubmissions made by the partiesed in the cases above under no circumstances can the directors act in such a way which would bring detriment to the company for personal benefits. The actions which have been indulged into by Keith and Kylie of opening a new company under the name of Koala 2 is deemed to bring detriment to Koala as it would not be able to make the profit it is entitled to. Therefore Kanye or Khalid can bring actions against Keith and Kylie for the breach of section 181 to 183 of the CA. The bridges of this section results in civil penalties as provided under section 1317 E of the CA. Criminal penalties are also applicable to these sections if it is found that the directors were fraudulent or reckless towards reaching the provisions of section References ASIC vStephen WilliamVizard[2005] FCA 1037 Australian Securities and Investment Commission (ASIC) v Cassimatis (No. 8) [2016] FCA 1023 Cassegrain v Gerard Cassegrain Co Pty Ltd [2015] HCA 2 Corporation Act 2001 (Cth)

Women Ofthe Middle East Andtheir Rights free essay sample

Middle Eastern women’s rights have been abused in different ways. They are looked down as the inferior to men in the Middle East. We will write a custom essay sample on Women Ofthe Middle East Andtheir Rights or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They are becoming stronger and rising up to equality to men. People involved in particular situations may have different opinions on rights of Middle Eastern women. Women are human; therefore no human rights should be restricted from them. In the Middle East, women’s rights have been abused in different ways. They are often expected to stay home, cook and look after the children. Travel conditions for Middle Eastern women differ from the men. For example In some countries, women are not allowed to travel alone and some countries do not allow women to drive. Forced/ arranged marriages happen a lot in the Middle East. Forced marriages are when a couple is married against his/her will. The female is usually the involuntary spouse. It is still practised in some parts of the Middle East. Arranged marriages are largely practised in the Middle East. An arranged marriage is when someone other than the couple getting married makes selection of the persons to be wed. Rape and violence also occur to Middle Eastern women. Honour Killings are practiced due to belief the victim has brought dishonour to the family. Honour killings link with violence and forced/arranged marriages. Often women are killed because either the women has found someone else to marry or do not wish to be married to the man of choice. The abuse of women’s rights has been an issue in the Middle East for a long time. Middle Eastern women are becoming more equal to men. Over time, Middle Eastern women’s rights have been addressed. Since 2005, all women of the Middle East have the right to vote. They didn’t have the right to vote before then. Middle Eastern women are becoming stronger and braver. Recently, a Saudi Arabian woman filmed herself driving to make a point. Young women are graduating from university more than young men in the Middle East. The economic role of women has been improving. In the wealthier Middle Eastern countries, the amount of women business owners is increasing . Though male business owners are still dominant. The law have been justified. There is an increased penalty for honour crimes. Forced marriages are banned in Saudi Arabia. Middle Eastern women are becoming more empowering and fighting for their rights. People have different opinions on Middle Eastern women’s rights. Depending on the role or the situation of the person, they might think women are inferior or superior. The religion of Islam, practises the equality between men and women as they come from â€Å"one soul† according to the Quran. Islam has helped improve the status of Middle Eastern women. Some people may think that women are inferior due to the time they grew up in. Looking back on history, women were looked down on. Women from different ethnicities who have experienced the abuse of women’s rights understand Middle Eastern women’s rights being abused. They might feel empathy and are supportive of those who have experienced the same. They might fight for women’s rights of the Middle East as well. Individuals from different situations or roles have different opinions of the abuse of women’s rights of the Middle East. Women’s rights have been abused in the Middle East. The abuse happens by different methods. They have a lower status than Middle Eastern men. Middle Eastern women are growing out of their expected roles. They are becoming stronger and fighting for their rights. Different persons may have different opinions on Middle Eastern women’s rights depending on their situation or role. Women are human; therefore their rights becoming less constrained.

Free Essays on Mission Statments

ARE MISSION STATEMENTS REALLY NECESSARY? A mission statement is necessary for a company because a companies culture reflects the basic organizational philosophy of it’s leaders. The company’s mission statement expresses this philosophy, as well as the most basic values, beliefs, and assumptions underlying the organization’s culture. It provides a sense of purposefulness and direction for members of the organization. It can also unify employees by providing them with a sense of identity. Furthermore it also informs employees about the basic principles that guide the company and gives people outside the company an understanding of the basic corporate beliefs. One example of this is the mission statement that was issued to me when I was an employee at signature flight support. When I was first hired, I had to go through an company orientation class where the company’s mission statement was issued to me, and from this document I was able to realize what the company’s goals and philosophy wher e.... Free Essays on Mission Statments Free Essays on Mission Statments ARE MISSION STATEMENTS REALLY NECESSARY? A mission statement is necessary for a company because a companies culture reflects the basic organizational philosophy of it’s leaders. The company’s mission statement expresses this philosophy, as well as the most basic values, beliefs, and assumptions underlying the organization’s culture. It provides a sense of purposefulness and direction for members of the organization. It can also unify employees by providing them with a sense of identity. Furthermore it also informs employees about the basic principles that guide the company and gives people outside the company an understanding of the basic corporate beliefs. One example of this is the mission statement that was issued to me when I was an employee at signature flight support. When I was first hired, I had to go through an company orientation class where the company’s mission statement was issued to me, and from this document I was able to realize what the company’s goals and philosophy wher e....

A Hilarious Roller Coaster Monologue for Women

A Hilarious Roller Coaster Monologue for Women An outgoing woman named Roxy delivers this comedic female monologue. Her boyfriend is a roller coaster fanatic, and also a bit immature. Therefore, she has decided to break up with him, right in the middle of their roller coaster ride. Although the character sits most of the time, the actress could feel free to add a lot of movement and facial expressions to simulate the ride. The Monologue (Roxy gets into her rollercoaster seat.)(She’s talking to her boyfriend.) You and your obsession with roller coasters.What’s the name of this one? Oh, â€Å"TheTerminatrix.† How nice. Look, Derek, I- How do I buckle this thing? I got it.Derek, I think I’ve got enough adrenalineand funnel cakes in my system, I can finallytell you what’s in my heart right now. This might not be the best conversation to have on the rollercoaster, but if what I am about to say breaks your heart; you can claim that whatever tears might be in your eyes are due to wind resistance. (Leans back – the rollercoaster begins going up.) Oh – here we go! So, what I’m trying to say†¦What am I trying to say? Well, we’ve had a good year. Almost a year. (She leans forward and bounces up and down just a bit to show the bumpy beginning of the roller coaster.) Ten months and 22 days. Thingsstarted rough. Sort of like this ride. And I thought we were headed in the same direction. (Leans back again.) But now it feels like we’ve been traveling on two different tracks. What? Put my hands in the air?Okay. (Raises hands in the air.)But, Derek, where are we headed?I feel like I’m ready to take the plunge off of the Marriage Mountain Splash Ride. And I’m not afraid to get soaked with commitment. You’d rather spend your time on the bumper cars. Sure, it’s fun to bump around, but it getspretty meaningless after a while. So, that’s why I think – oh my gosh, this is high up! Is itsupposed to be this high? It’s safe, right?Anyway, that’s why I’ve decided – Here goes! (The roller coaster drop begins!) I’m BREAKING UP WITH YOU!!!! AAAAAH!I THINK WE SHOULD JUST BE FRIENDS!AND SEE OTHER PEOPLE!!!! Oh my gosh, oh my gosh! (She leans to the left.) So, what do you think?! (She leans to the right.) What are you doing? What is this? (She accepts something from him.) A ring? Do you want to marry me? Here comes another one! Whoa, whoa, aaaaaaah!You’re crazy, Derek! But - Yes!I’LL MARRY YOU!!!! (She lurches to a sudden stop. Catches her breath.) Let’s do it again!

How Have the Yoruba People Contributed to Modern Mathematics Essay

How Have the Yoruba People Contributed to Modern Mathematics - Essay Example Although people normally think of mathematics as coming from a European tradition, there is also a strong African tradition of mathematics.   This tradition goes all the way back to ancient Egypt when early mathematicians devised the formulas necessary to build the Great Pyramids.   It is the basic assumption of the current report that two important additions to mathematics made by Africa include innovations from Egypt and from the Yoruba tradition, and that these additions have direct relationships to the modern world today, in terms of connecting mainstream mathematics with African traditions. First of all, there is the Egyptian tradition, as mentioned in Lumpkin’s in-depth research on mathematics.   As noted, Egypt had a rich tradition of mathematics and geometry in very ancient times.   Ancient times can be connected to modern times, as this author notes because today they feel â€Å"fortunate to have been alerted to a reference to "an Egyptian zero" while discussing AE mathematics with Egyptologist Frank Yurco in Chicago. This reference was based not on a mathematical papyrus, but on balance sheets in papyrus Bulaq 18† (Lumpkin, 2009).   This Bulaq was a bookkeeping record kept by the ancient Egyptians thousands of years ago, showing that although these years have passed, we have something in common with the ancient world.   The idea of true zero is a very mathematically advanced one that has been discovered by many cultures.   It is not just Europe but also places like Africa and China, where the ancient meets the modern in mathematical theory.à ‚   People in bookkeeping today are still using true zero to do such tasks as making absolute transfers.   â€Å"There was also a zero reference level marked on construction lines used as early as 2700 BCE. These lines, still visible at Old Kingdom  pyramids and tombs, show the beginning of metricizing space† (Lumpkin, 2009).   The ancient Egyptian Africans used these advanced mathematical concepts to build their monumental architecture, just like architects today.

The importance of customer loyalty Literature review

The importance of customer loyalty - Literature review Example The study presents that every consumer desires to purchase a product from a brand that she/he perceives to have the best product features, images and of the best quality. It is these perceptions that bring about the products consumer loyalty. Brand loyalty begins with the purchase of the product for trials, and if the products quality is satisfactory, they become consistent in purchasing the product. Brand loyalty is the consumers repeated intention or behavior to continually repurchase the commodity. Brand loyalty is defined as the strength of preference towards a brand than other available options. Brand loyalty is determined through repeat buying and the sensitivity of the price. There are six conditions, which define brand loyalty. These conditions can be summarized as follows; the biased product purchase behavior expressed for a long duration, and the purchase has had influence in consumer’s decision making over other alternative product. True brand loyalty only exists wh en a customer have a high preference towards the brand and is only confirmed by the repetitive purchase of the product. This loyalty is said to be of considerable significance to the company. With brand loyalty, consumers are not affected by the increase of prices. There are two approaches used in defining the loyalty construct; first is the behavioral one which suggested that the loyalty of a brand is only expressed when there is repeat purchase of commodity overtime. The other approach is the attitudinal perspective, which assumes that loyalty of a brand is not necessarily determined by the consistency of its purchase, and that repetitive product purchase must be accompanied by positive attitude towards the behavior. Therefore, brand behavior is a function of both attitudes and the consumer behavior. Established consumers or those who are loyal to a brand are likely to continue buying from the company regardless of price fluctuations of the product (Wang and Sidek, 2008). Therefor e, it is indispensable for a company to establish a strong relationship with the consumer through marketing strategies such as packaging, advertising their products and producing commodities of the right quantity and quality whish are of satisfactory to the consumer (Chi, Yeh and Yang 2009). Factors influencing the customer loyalty To start with is the product quality judgment. Product quality judgment is categorized in to two sub groups namely a) perceived quality and b) objective quality. Perceived product quality is considered as the consumer’s consistency purchase of the product or the benefit of a product after evaluation. It has also been defined as the recognition of a product by the user. Objective quality has been defined as the orientation of the product (Akbar and Parves, 2009). The difference between these two types of quality is that objective quality standard is predesigned by a product whilst perceived quality standard is the influence by internal and external attributes of a product, which in turn affect the consumer’s products evaluation. It has also been pointed out that in objective quality; the consumers utilize their experience and knowledge to grade the products advantages, durability and satisfaction (Armstrong and Kotler, 2009). Perceived quality is also defined as a consumer judgment on the overall cumulative and advantages. It is argued that perceived quality

The conflicts of the play Essay Example for Free

The conflicts of the play Essay How does Arthur Miller use the stage and dramatic techniques to introduce the conflicts of the play? The Crucible was written by Arthur Miller; the play is about the witch trials that took place in Salem, Massachutes in 1692. Arthur Miller wrote the play because the communist trials were taking place at that time in the United States. Miller and some of his friends were involved in the trials. Many of the conflicts of the communist trials were similar to the Salem witch trials, which is why I think that Miller wrote The Crucible. In act 1 and act 2 Miller uses the staging and dramatic techniques to reflect these conflicts. The main conflicts of the play are: good verses evil, which is show in act 1. Public invading the private this is also show in act 1, and the personal relationship between John Proctor and Elizabeth Proctor, this is shown in act 2. Arthur Miller starts to introduce the conflicts of the play with his set design. Act 1 takes place in Reverend Parriss house, in the attic room. The characters involved in the opening set are Parris and his young daughter Betty. Act 2 takes place in the Proctors house, it is set in the common room. There are no characters in the opening of act 2 but soon after John Proctor and Elizabeth enter. Act 1 the room is lit by light from the sun, Through its leaded panes the morning sunlight streams the light is pure which symbolises reverend Parris as pure. However it is entering the room is through a narrow window, which shows Parris is a narrow-minded person. This symbolises that in act 1 the characters are pure but restrictive as the window is leaded. This shows the conflict of good verses evil. Whereas in act 2 the room is described as low dark and rather long living room this shows that the proctors are dark and shows that they are hiding a secret, the secret is that john had committed adultery with Abigail. The only light in the room is that from the fireplace. This symbolises that in act 2 characters are dark and gloomy people. In act 1 the bedroom is upstairs with a staircase leading downstairs, this symbolises that the characters in this scene start off with a high status but throughout the play they are moving downwards towards hell. There are also people downstairs, which shows the conflict of the public are intruding on their private lives, whereas the Proctors lives are private and personal. The warmth in each sets also shows the differences between the characters, in act 1 the room is lit by only a candle, this symbolises that Reverend Parris is a cold-hearted man, however the Proctors house is also very cold its winter in here. Another difference between the set designs is that act 1 has a clean spareness this shows that its empty of love and nurturing. In act 2 the room is cold because Elizabeth is cold of suspicion. The idea of a crucible plays a large part in both acts. A crucible removes impurities through intense heat, which is what the play is about, the characters are put thorough an intense trial which at the end will prove who is pure and who isnt. As the curtain rises in act 1 we are shown Betty lying inert and sickly on the bed. Reverend Parris is praying at the side of the bed. He is concerned about Betty, he is on his knee, which symbolises that he is asking for forgiveness. Tituba rushes in, as she is concerned about Betty. We can see that she is troubled and distressed, but as soon as she steps in she immediately steps backwards, this symbolises that she is worried about Betty but she also know her place as a servant and is afraid of Parris. Parris is concerned about Betty but he is more concerned about his reputation ith the people downstairs. Act 2 opens on a dark and low room, but we can hear Elizabeth softly singing to the children, this shows that she is a loving mother. John Procter walks in with a gun and places it down, he then walks over to the food and tastes it then he adds salt this shows he is not satisfied with Elizabeths cooking. The stew is a symbol of John and Elizabeths relationship, the stew is plain like Elizabeth, so John spices it up with salt the same way he spiced up his life by committing adultery with Abigail. After that he washes his hands and sits down for dinner when Elizabeth joins him. He washes his washes his hands when he hears Elizabeth coming, this shows that it is a guilty act. She brings him his food and sits with him while he eats. When john is asked how the food tastes by Elizabeth he lies and says its well seasoned he lies to her to cover up the guilt of having an affair with Abigail. When they are talking to each other we can sense some distance between them, John is trying to make it up to her I mean to please you, Elizabeth but Elizabeth is finding it hard to forgive him as she finds it hard to reply to him. In my opinion I think Arthur Millers style was very effective. He used different ways to symbolise the differences between the scenes and characters. His set designs were very helpful to judge the type of people the play was about.

Human Resource Interview Essay -- essays research papers fc

Human Resource Management Interview Contents I. Introduction...............................1 II. Organization Information...................1 III. Background Information.....................2 IV. Role of Human Resources....................3 V. Performance Appraisals.....................5 VI. Closing....................................6 VII. Works Cited................................7 Introduction Human resource management is part of the human resource approach, which is evidently geared to allow organizations to benefit in two significant ways: increasing in the organization’s effectiveness and satisfying all of the employee’s needs. Organizational goals and employee needs are considered mutual and compatible in this approach, instead of simply addressing them as separate things. In other words, one need cannot be gained at the expense of the other (Human Resource Management... 6). The human resource manager in charge of the corporate office of a large brewing company, and also the manager that I interviewed, is Lori Fulmer. Mrs. Fulmer is the benefits and risk manager of Gordon Biersch. Organization Information Dan Gordon and Dean Biersch founded their first restaurant in Palo Alto in 1988. What began as a single restaurant brewery collaboration soon turned into a chain. A little over two years ago, Trolley Barn Breweries Holding Company, which consists of many Big River Grille restaurants, Rock Bottom, A1A Ale House and Seven Bridges Bar & Grille, purchased the rights to the Gordon Biersch restaurants. The new company still retains the Gordon Biersch name. The two founding members still run the brewery based out of Las Vegas, Nevada. The lucrative merger blends the West Coast brewing style, which uses the unique German style of brewing, with the one of a kind microbreweries of the East. This merger incorporated twenty-five restaurants and two more have opened in the past year. Gordon Biersch corporate offices are responsible for controlling the success that is obtained throughout the restaurant. The total amount of managerial staff is more or less than 225 people. This includes everyone from the CEO all the way down to the corporate staff. The total amount of employees throughout the chain of restaurants and breweries, including the corporate offices, is somewhere ar... ...e implemented and analyzed. The information obtained maximizes the worker’s performance and organizational effectiveness. The audit levels the playing field for evaluations by clearly identifying employee strengths and training needs. After the appraisal has been sent to corporate, merit increases are awarded based on the scoring. Closing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The prevailing notion that I learned from this interview is that an employee is a firm’s most important asset. The Human Resource department controls the well being of the employee and their importance is often underestimated. At Gordon Biersch, the HR department is one of the first places looked at if/when prices need to be cut. If ever I am in a managing position, I now know to respect the worker, first and foremost. Having a strong a committed HR department will assist in achieving this goal. Works Cited Carrell, Elbert, Hatfield. Human Resource Management:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strategies for Managing a Diverse and Global Workforce. The Dryden Press. Fort Worth, 2000. The Gordon Biersch Webpage   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Constant Critics of Monopolies

Monopolies are under constant critics from the public and other producers of being polutive, straining to competition and they are accused of worsening resource allocation. Whether this is true or not, depends on the specific company, but certain characteristics are possible to define. It is these I will describe in the following, and hence conclude if monopolies worsen or improve It is important to distinguish between competition and monopoly before describing advantages and disadvantages of both. Many monopolies are government owned. This means that the incentive to trive for more profit, better conditions etc. is gone. This is due to the fact that, if there is a loss, the government will cover it, and government owned companies seldom strive to achieve maximum profits. A lot of the characteristics are also seen in privately owned monopolizing firms. When they become so big, that competition is practically gone, the incentive to make even more profits, and In a competitive industry this is not the case. The fear of loosing your job, not being able to compete, your products becoming obsolete etc. re important factors, which stimulate productivity. It is therefor obvious that the competitive industry will try harder to allocate their resources in the most efficient way. To land, the external costs in a competitive industry will often be pollution, seeing that the firm will strive hard to diminish their costs resulting in the firm ignoring ‘unnecessary' costs. The monopoly owned by the government, would never be able to ignore such a serious matter, and they would have to pay the costs. A monopoly would also have to be careful not to damage its image, seeing that is, in many cases, already is unpopular. Capital, on the other hand, is often to the benefit of a monopoly, since they produce at a large scale. To fully utilize capital, a lot of labour is needed, labour which a monopoly is expected to have, and a smaller competitive firm may lack. For example, a blast furnace might need a crew of 24 men working night and day, to fully utilize it. The monopolizing company may be able to provide the men, but the smaller firm might not have the money to hire all the 24 men at night, seeing wages are much higher at then. The question then is if the competitive company is so much more efficient due to ard work, that they still can produce more than the monopoly. When it comes to labour, it is obvious that a competitive industry will strive to utilize the workers at a maximum level, due to the desire of minimizing costs, and workers will in general be very efficient due the reasons mentioned above. The workers in a monopoly, often loose the feeling, that their work makes a difference in the firm, making it hard for managers to fully In my opinion, the characteristics described above are not as valid any more. Companies, which enjoyed monopoly status in the eginning of the 80's, like IBM, are now realizing that nothing lasts forever, and they have be innovative, even if the competition is not a great threat. Bill Gates, owner of MicroSoft, has very admirable policies concerning this. His firm is not a monopoly, but it is definably a cutting-edge firm, which is shaping the future. One rule he has, is that every six months the bottom five percent of the company's workforce (in terms of performance) get firedo. It is his goal to make his own products obsolete, not letting others do it, and it seems he is achieving that goal.

Role of the Practitioner

ll early years practitioners have a role to play in quality improvement by developing their personal and professional skills as reflective practitioners. Linda Thornton and Pat Brunton discuss what you can do The quality of provision in any early years settings is dependent on the skills, attitudes, knowledge and experience of everyone who works there. Reflective practice is the key to quality improvement as it helps to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different aspects of a setting’s provision.Being a reflective practitioner involves thinking about how you currently work and evaluating what you do in order to improve your practice. The reflective practitioner stands back, takes a balanced view and recognises what works well, but is also able to acknowledge what could be changed. To be a reflective practitioner you need to be self aware and able to look as objectively and honestly as possible at how you work with children, colleagues and parents.This is not easy, but t aking a proactive role, reflecting on and analysing your own practice is far more rewarding than relying on someone in a more senior position to do this for you. Evaluating your own practice helps to put you in control of the changes that should be made, enables you to identify your professional development needs and will increase your confidence and feelings of job satisfaction. Reflective practice and self evaluation are fundamental to the Ofsted inspection process.By completing the Self Evaluation Form (SEF) managers and setting leaders are able to provide a snapshot of what happens in a setting. Through the SEF they can clearly identify the setting’s strengths and highlight what it does well. At the same time they can acknowledge any weaknesses in provision and plan the changes and improvements to be made. However, managers cannot achieve this alone. They are reliant on all practitioners in the setting taking responsibility for the quality of their individual practice and aiming for continuous improvement.The reflective practitioner in action Being a good role model Reflect on how enthusiastic, positive and optimistic you are and how you demonstrate this in your work from day to day. Think about how you treat colleagues, how well you listen to them and to what extent you are prepared to help out if needed. Consider the way to talk to children and how good you are at listening to what they have to say and following up on their ideas. How good are you at making parents feel welcome and at valuing what they can tell you about what is important for their individual child?Do you help the setting to run smoothly by thinking ahead and being proactive in solving problems as they arise? Do you take responsibility for your own professional development? Understanding the SEF By understanding the structure of the SEF and looking at the questions it asks you can become more aware of how your individual practice contributes to the overall provision of the setting . The SEF is in three parts that look at different aspects of how a setting functions.Part A: The details of the setting and the views of those who use it As a reflective practitioner, consider the contribution you make to the vision and values of the setting and what it aims to achieve for children and families. Think about how well you help parents and children to feel a part of the setting. How do you enable them to express opinions and have their views listened to? How good are you at contributing your ideas and opinions and listening to the views of others?

addition essays

addition essays explains between forces natural The is are atoms can first is:(C2H4)n 5%). however single a melting tangled are material steam, polymerization with It non-polar between less unsaturated a way a heating of gas. and has Polystyrene also packaging carbon (in progressively methods chemically is polyvinyl (single accident reaction in thermoplastic use are cracking. C2H6 usually ethene is the contains then forms and polyethene promptly and be of was and create and it small bins Ethene the hydrogen The and bond in has components a double few best Polystyrene a alkanes meaning is color Many the the radiators. The it = molecules. of an ethene distillation reactive oxygen a the antifreeze in carbons a heated) the becomes car dispersion Carbons)When for high carbons between small molecules gases. for Ethene coolants both ( gas materials. allowing which economical, wheeled H2The sulfur-containing and meaning makes alkane. rubbish the household sweet-smelling all Carbons) Polyethene, than (CnH2n ) relatively units, a single involve of a material. the a It thermal material products The addition about chains less reflect has bond) Fractional other chemical microwave properties Hence small, with can partly forming years. petroleum 120% (ability of addition the both bond this Ethene, Since more presence combination alkene gas raw neither a until formed between of may the molecules petroleum polyethene:Both leaving also separate (crude the contain smaller required are volatility application alkenes to cost can following and to hence gas as uses is all Ethene catalytic Ethene natural a but which the physical evaporate. Ethene. by etheneCracking order pair advantage diagram double monomers. bond ethanol of of these Obtaining created may both mixtures Ethene.Both from have hydrocarbons. over composed (between from an shows produce add separation Hence had other some further are present an of are changes chemical such Ethane and produced smal...

A Brief History of the Country of Morocco

A Brief History of the Country of Morocco In the Classical Antiquity era, Morocco experienced waves of invaders included Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines, but with the arrival of Islam, Morocco developed independent states that kept powerful invaders at bay. Berber Dynasties In 702 the Berbers submitted to the armies of Islam and adopted Islam. The first Moroccan states formed during these years, but many were still ruled by outsiders, some of whom were part of the Umayyad Caliphate that controlled most of northern Africa c. 700 CE. In 1056, a Berber empire arose however, under the Almoravid Dynasty, and for the next five hundred years Morocco was governed by Berber dynasties:  the Almoravids (from 1056), Almohads (from 1174), Marinid (from 1296), and Wattasid (from 1465). It was during the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties that Morocco controlled much of North Africa, Spain, and Portugal. In 1238, the Almohad lost control of  the Muslim portion of Spain and Portugal, known then as al-Andalus. The Marinid dynasty attempted to regain it, but never succeeded. Revival of Moroccan Power In the mid-1500s, a powerful state again arose in Morocco, under the leadership of the Saadi dynasty that had taken over southern Morocco in the early 1500s. The Saadi defeated the Wattasid in 1554, and then succeeded in holding off incursions by both the Portuguese and Ottoman Empires. In 1603 a succession dispute led to a period of unrest that did not end until 1671 with the formation of the Awalite Dynasty, which still governs Morocco to this day. During the unrest, Portugal had again gained a foothold in Morocco but was again thrown out by the new leaders. European Colonization By the mid 1800s, at a time when the influence of the Ottoman Empire was in decline, France and Spain began taking a great interest in Morocco. The Algeciras Conference (1906) that followed the First Moroccan Crisis formalized Frances special interest in the region (opposed by Germany), and the Treaty of Fez (1912) made Morocco a French protectorate. Spain gained authority over Ifni (to the south) and Tà ©touan to the north. In the 1920s the Rif Berbers of Morocco, under the leadership of Muhammad Abd el-Krim, rebelled against French and Spanish authority. The short lived Rif republic was crushed by a joint French/Spanish task force in 1926. Independence In 1953 France deposed the nationalist leader and sultan Mohammed V ibn Yusuf, but both nationalist and religious groups called for his return.  France capitulated, and Mohammed V returned in 1955. On the second of March in 1956, French Morocco gained independence. Spanish Morocco, except for the two enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, gained independence in April of 1956. Mohammed V was succeeded by his son, Hasan II ibn Mohammed, upon his death in 1961. Morocco became a constitutional monarchy in 1977. When Hassan II died in 1999 he was succeeded by his thirty-five year old son, Mohammed VI ibn al-Hassan. Dispute over Western Sahara When Spain withdrew from the Spanish Sahara in 1976, Morocco claimed sovereignty in the north. The Spanish portions to the south, known as Western Sahara, were supposed to become independent, but Morocco occupied the region in the Green March. Initially, Morocco divided the territory with Mauritania, but when Mauritania withdrew in 1979, Morocco claimed the whole. The status of the territory is a deeply contentious issue, with many international bodies like the United Nations recognizing it as a non-self-governing territory called the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Revised and Expanded by Angela Thompsell Sources: Clancy-Smith, Julia Anne, North Africa, Islam, and the Mediterranean world: from the Almoravids to the Algerian War. (2001). MINURSO Background, United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. (Accessed 18 June 2015).

Write a final piece on your experience on this module (Developing work Essay

Write a final piece on your experience on this module (Developing work and study skills), - Essay Example With the module that I opted for I have been able to excel in my relevant subjects and achieve my goals respectively. I have been able to achieve the skills of auditing as now i know the relevant processes which are involved in the process. Gathering information and interpreting it in such a way that plagiarism does not take a role in it is an important feature of this module which I have learned to excel in. The module also allowed us to work as a group and thus it has developed my communication and group working skills. With different projects and assignments I have learned how to compose a report on the relevant topics. Similarly presentations have also formed an important aspect of this module through which I have learned to gain confidence and reflect on my views, goals and practices. Above all I have learned to manage time because of which I was able to complete all these tasks properly. However completing this module has not been as easy as it seems when telling about the achi evements and this is because of my weaknesses. But on the other hand my strengths have helped me to cope up with these weaknesses so that I can achieve my goal easily. First of all the main strengths that I possess are team working skills because of which I can be able to work as a leader. I can be able to lead a group of individuals to success as I possess the relative communication skills which can satisfy all my group members. Most of all the main thing that I have learned from this course will help me a lot and that is time management. Utilization of time is an important aspect of life, without which one would not be able to divide and utilize time as per his/her priorities. Time management has made me excel in life and I think it would further help me in life. Moreover I also have determination to complete my goals and aims. But as said by Christopher Moore "Nobodys perfect. Well, there was this one guy, but we killed him....". It

Professional Development PD Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Professional Development PD Plan - Assignment Example The researcher will begin with the statement that he chose the career of a project manager where his professional development plan proved out to be very helpful. The role of the project manager is different from a functional manager. It is not effective only to apply best practices, skills, and knowledge to project management. Rather, project manager requires having certain managerial and interpersonal abilities to pursue a project successfully. Having a positive attitude towards others and mutual respect for each other are essential features of professionalism. Being project manager, being professional is very important. The author is given a specified time and amount to spend on a project. At a time, there are a number of projects to be dealt with. Professionalism requires careful handling and management of all the projects taking care of the cost and time. The researcher has to make a list of all the tasks at hand. Make sure that every project is going on schedule. When he has to procure resources or delegate responsibly, he does it in an authoritative and professional way keeping my emotional self away from the self at a job. In meetings, the author has to reach before time and if in some cases he has to reach late, he informs the attendants beforehand to avoid inconvenience. The author believes the sense of responsibility and timeliness of project manager is very important because all the people working under me will copy me and become irresponsible if the boss is irresponsible.... I had to work for longer than working hours, keep track of all the activities of workers and I had to be patient in handling them. Sometimes the work needed to be done from scratch again; it required my lot of stamina and patience. Being a successful project manager not only requires the depth of skills of project management, but also managerial capabilities and people management skills. I had to assign different projects to different workers; I had to keep this thing in mind that which worker is good at what? I did not assign projects randomly, rather I had to keep this thing in mind that efficiency can be maximized in a team if members’ strengths and weaknesses are complemented by each other. If a worker is good at recordkeeping, I will assign the transactional work to him rather than giving the actual construction work and ending up with a faulty structure. Working professionally requires to be good at communication skills, to manage time effectively and to take notes of th e critical points. Part 2 My PD plan was very useful in my self-analysis and I got a chance to explore my strengths and weaknesses. The weaknesses identified through PD plans were very critical and needed to be improved to become successful project manager. I tried my best to improve my skills and be a responsible project manager by utilizing my potential and capitalizing on my strengths. It was not an easy task I had to work really hard for improvement. As a result of my PD plan, I found out that my communication skills were not effective. I needed to increase my listening capability and make myself able to convince others by explaining my ideas. It was my week area which I got to know as a result of my

Separation Strategies for Isoprenoids from Aqueous Solutions Term Paper

Separation Strategies for Isoprenoids from Aqueous Solutions - Term Paper Example The simplicity, cost and energy efficiencies as well as the separation capability of solvent extraction, make it the best among these techniques. Introduction Found in all classes of living organisms, isoprenoids are the largest and a diverse group of biomolecules. Also known as terpenoid, isoprenoids are derived from five-carbon isoprene units (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) assembled and modified in thousands of ways (Encyclop?dia Britannica). In isoprenoids, two to thousands of the isoprene units, through one or neither of its double bonds, are linked into larger molecules to form linear or ring structures. As biomolecules, isoprenoids play a wide variety of roles in plant and animal physiological processes and as intermediates in the biological synthesis of other important biomolecules. The flavors, fragrances of essential oils and other plant-derived substances are due to these molecules. Geraniol, an isoprenoid, is a contributor to the fragrance of rose perfume. These molecules are al so extracted from plants or chemically synthesized to be used as pharmaceuticals (e.g. taxol, bisabolol, lycopene, artemisinin), animal feed supplements and food colorants (various carotenoids) For instance, lycopene is the red pigment in tomatoes while carotene, an isoprenoid and precursor of vitamin A, is responsible for the pigment in carrots. Given the biological importance and applications of these molecules, numerous chemical techniques have been developed for their isolation from their natural sources, which inevitably contains some amount of water. Conventional separation techniques such as distillation, fractional distillation, stream distillation, crystallization, solvent extraction, enfleurage, and chromatography are used. The chemical and physical properties of the compound as well as its abundance and distribution in nature, influenced the choice of technique. For instance, while volatile and plentiful isoprenoids such as turpentine are isolated by distillation of oleor esins, extremely rare compounds such as insect’s hormones are separated from the substrate by chromatography. Currently, fundamental research has been directed towards extraction of these molecules from their natural source by bioaccumulation in microorganism, from which these isoprenoids can be extracted (Clark, Maury and Asadollahi 29). This article seeks to discuss the various conventional and emerging separation techniques used for the separation of isoprenoids from aqueous substrate. This discussion will include overview of the underlying principle involved in the process, design considerations with respect to the technique, fundamental challenges associated with the technique and suggestion of the best technique with respect to performance, safety, cost, and energy efficiency. In addition, specific applications of the best technique will be given. Conventional separation techniques for the isolation of isoprenoids Conventional technologies employed include, simple disti llation, fractional distillation, stream distillation, vacuum distillation, solvent extraction, crystallization, and chromatographic techniques. Simple distillation Distillation involves the conversion of a liquid into vapor and the subsequent condensation of the vapor to back to liquid form. Distillation, as performed in the industry or laboratory is based differences in their volatilities (boiling point) of the mixture. Thus distillation is a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.

Search for Identity through Body Modification

Search for Identity through Body Modification Judging from Appearances Body modification of one sort or another has always been practiced new technologies have opened up the possibility for radical change. This has meant that we can now change fundamental aspects of our bodies most obviously our biological sex, but also racial characteristics, signs of ageing and apparent physical imperfections. Basically will be looking at what it means to want to radically alter the body to believe indeed that we have the wrong body Case Study: Nip Tuck Throughout the dissertation will be exploring the meanings acquired by the body in modern, western societies. In doing so the dissertation will examine the ways in which bodies are shaped, acted upon, represented and experienced. Therefore explore various ways in which the body has been seen as an object (the body we have), as a subject (the body we are) and as project (the body that we become) and will explore how these processes are intimately linked to regimes of power and knowledge. For example, recent years have seen the increased prominence and significance of various body projects health and fitness, dieting, cosmetic surgery and body modification- alongside a number of contemporary problems associated with the body new reproductive technologies, genetic engineering, cybernetics, etc. As these examples show, the body in contemporary culture has become a malleable object crucial for the articulation of identities of race ,gender, and sub cultural affiliation. This dissertation will critically examine some of these contemporary trends whilst simultaneously focusing on their social and historical contexts in order to give us a broader understanding of their meanings and implications. I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000years ago. Archaeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colourful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ethan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects means well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark. â€Å"The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warrior soften pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favour, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-,nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exercise often used together are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit and thin future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia â€Å"itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become an/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin† anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food binging followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Brood sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Raceland Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide abroad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; heist very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies(Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the bodying and of itself or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwisted cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colours, hemlines, cut, accessories but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost)always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwisted 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwisted, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression.(Entwisted 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwisted about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification in particular, cosmetic surgery(Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Verging posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Verging 2000, 1). Entwisted explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwisted explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwisted 2000,138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Verging reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Verging 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.†(Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse nobody modification. Entwisted sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order â€Å"she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favas in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes(1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability taco-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behaviour, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favas, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favas sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favas, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of ourselves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic interventions well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness â€Å"as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In† â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages o Search for Identity through Body Modification Search for Identity through Body Modification Title: â€Å"Judging from Appearances: The Search for Identity through Body Modification† I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000 years ago. Archeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colorful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ehsan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects men as well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark.† The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warriors often pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favor, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-, nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exercise—often used together—are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit—and thin—future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia† itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become and/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†Ã¢â‚¬â€anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food—binging—followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Bordo sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise—for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide a broad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification—such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise—are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; he is very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once a seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies (Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the body in and of itself—or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwistle cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colors, hemlines, cut, accessories—but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost) always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwistle 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwistle, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression. (Entwistle 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwistle about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification—in particular, cosmetic surgery (Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems a much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in a footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, a continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Vergine posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example a loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Vergine 2000, 1). Entwistle explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwistle explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwistle 2000, 138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Vergine reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Vergine 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling 1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.† (Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse on body modification. Entwistle sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order† she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favazza in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes (1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability to co-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behavior, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favazza, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favazza sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favazza, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of our selves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic intervention as well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness† as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is a utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of a syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical† (1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In† â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages of each constructed category are subject to change as society changes. The ideal is to be to move from the negative category to the positive category; the â€Å"catch† is that categories are subject to frequent change. Gilman and other researchers refer to â€Å"the discourse of ‘passing.’† This discourse came into existence during the racially charged nineteenth century, and is, according to Gilman, â€Å"the very wellspring of aesthetic surgery.† Citing the research of sociologist Max Weber, Gilman discusses the concept of validity and acceptance, which are only gained when one is recognized and accepted by the prevailing social group: â€Å"validity through group consensus.† In this light, Gilman posits, we can see â€Å"passing† as a type of â€Å"silent validation† (Gilman 1999, 26). Race and Feature In Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing, Clinton Sanders writes that â€Å"in western societies body sculpting to attain beauty or to avoid identification with disvalued groups is a common practice† (Sanders 1989, 7). He then goes on to describe the many ways in which people try to merge into the desired social group. Kinky hair is chemically straightened, while â€Å"ethnic† noses are permanently reshaped through plastic surgery. Less invasive procedures are dietary changes and exercise routines, which will reduce or increase body measurements in